How does mining impact Indigenous Peoples’ water rights?

An introduction to the nexus between mining, water use, and Indigenous rights.

This edition of “The E-Waste Newsletter” was written by Krisna Baghouzian and Christine Nikander.

What is the impact of water pollution on Indigenous Peoples?

Mining strongly affects ecosystems and the people surrounding the area. Overall, mining is estimated to impact 23 million people worldwide.[i] Open-pit mining is especially known to “destro[y] vast territories, including wetlands, underground aquifers, springs and rivers”. Mining can “creat[e] unacceptable risks of toxic contamination, not only of indigenous peoples' drinking water supplies on site, but also of downstream populations, often occurring in river headwaters”.[ii]

It is estimated that there are currently 476 million Indigenous individuals spread across more than 90 countries. Therewith, Indigenous Peoples represent 6.2% of the world population. Yet, they also make up 18.7% of “the extremely poor” and approximately 33% of people “living in extreme poverty in rural areas”.[iii] This also has an impact on their access to water infrastructure and clean water.

Indigenous Peoples currently face several challenges that undermine their access to clean water and proper sanitation.[iv] Key issues include the “pollution of available water resources” of Indigenous Peoples, as well as the “lack of consultation on policies and projects affecting their water and sanitation rights”.[v] Moreover, “mining, the construction of immense hydroelectric dams, the development of large agricultural and livestock farms, massive land and water-grabbing processes and the development of large tourism projects in their territories are damaging and contaminating their water sources and putting their livelihoods at risk”.[vi]

According to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, “the impact of extractivism on natural resources, compounded with the effects of climate change, has meant many indigenous peoples no longer have access to safe drinking water under international human rights standards”.[vii] Overall, “[t]he degradation of the water bodies from which indigenous peoples draw their water [...] have disproportionate impacts on the health of indigenous peoples, especially women and children”.[viii] The “toxic contamination [of water], together with the impacts of climate change and the lack of investment in necessary infrastructure” cause major issues.[ix]

Current threats to Indigenous Peoples’ water rights through mining

Mining disproportionately impacts Indigenous communities. Over half of the “transition materials [are] located on or near land where Indigenous people live”. Moreover, “85% of […] lithium extraction projects [are] on or near land managed or inhabited by Indigenous people.”[x] A 2021 report from MSCI Inc. also found that “97% of nickel, 89% of copper, 79% of lithium and 68% of cobalt reserves and resources in the U.S. are located within 35 miles of Native American reservations”.[xi] Amongst others, mining operations can lead to “land and water grabbing [...] in the territories of indigenous peoples”.[xii]

Nickel mining for electric vehicles in the Philippines has, for example, led to declining water quality and health issues to Indigenous Peoples and rural communities in the area.[xiii] “In total, more than a quarter of mining territories clash with protected, key biodiversity areas or important wetlands” and the devastating effects of toxic waste leaking into waters can be seen by satellite images.[xiv] While Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines have lost a fifth of their delineated territory to mining, “they have been disproportionately targeted with reprisals for speaking up against mining”.[xv] As of 2012, “the Philippines has been ranked as the deadliest country in Asia for people protecting land and the environment”. Here, “mining [is] linked to a third of all killings documented by Global Witness”.[xvi]

Mercury pollution and heavy metal contamination are particularly grave issues caused through mining. In the Philippines, the Didipio River has been contaminated through heavy metals. This, in turn, “has affected indigenous peoples’ access to safe drinking water and water for irrigation”. In Brazil, the Indigenous Munduruku People’s access to safe drinking water has been threatened by illegal mining activities and mercury pollution in the Tapajós River basin. In the U.S., mercury levels in the public water supply of a Lakota reservation in South Dakota have risen to “eight times above the accepted limit as the result of mining activities”.[xvii]

Beyond this, several gold and copper mines in the Amazon and the Oak Flat copper mine in the U.S. have contaminated water. The mining of gold and copper in the Amazon has polluted local water supplies[xviii] and a decreasing water quality has affected local Indigenous groups at the Oak Flat copper mine.[xix] Since 2011, on average three people in the Amazon have been killed per week trying to protect their land, according to a Global Witness report from October 2022. A quarter of the deaths were tied to the extractive industries. The mining industry was “directly linked to the most killings” and most of the individuals killed were Indigenous.[xx]

Beyond water contamination, water scarcity through mining is also an issue. Several open-pit mines in Bolivia have, for example, caused water scarcity. More specifically, the open-pit mining for silver, copper, lead, zinc, tin and other minerals has adversely impacted Indigenous Quechua People in Bolivia. The mining has led to “water scarcity [...] near the Indigenous Quechua community collective, or ayllu, of Acre Antequera”. The mining has used up large amounts of the Quechua community’s freshwater, and the waste from mining activity has contaminated their food and large amounts of the remaining water in the area. As a consequence of this, the Quechua community is effectively left “without enough water to raise livestock and grow crops” in the dry season from May to November.[xxi]

Mining can also be seen as a threat to the cultural identity of people reliant on the availability of clean water. This is because, in addition to its utility value, water can have a value through being a part of our cultural heritage. Water can be a resource needed to sustain a traditional way of living, or a resource needed to maintain traditions and cultural practices. The water scarcity within the Quechua community has, for example, led to “an increasing number of residents […] relocat[ing] to other parts of the country, creating concern that many cultural practices will disappear”.[xxii] Beyond this, water ecosystems that are considered sacred or religious places are a good example of water’s significance for cultural heritage. Notably, at the Oak Flat copper mine, a land swap was approved allowing a mine to “be built on a site of religious significance for local indigenous groups” causing (mental) health damage and conflict.[xxiii]

Indigenous Peoples’ sustainable water management practices

By many Indigenous communities, “[w]ater is not considered or managed as a resource but is considered to be part of an interconnected whole”.[xxiv] This is because, “[in] the traditions of many indigenous peoples, water is life itself”.[xxv] Many Indigenous Peoples hold the view that “water belongs to everyone and should remain available to all, as a common good”.[xxvi] In line with this, water “management is based on an integrated territorial vision and on deep respect and care for rivers, springs, lakes and wetlands”.[xxvii]

The approach of Indigenous Peoples to water “offers a valuable example of [the] community-based management of safe drinking water and sanitation”.[xxviii] Overall, “[t]he territories of indigenous peoples comprise about 25 per cent of the world’s land surface, including approximately 40 per cent of all protected land areas and ecologically intact landscapes”. Over time, “indigenous peoples have preserved 80 per cent of the remaining terrestrial biodiversity”.[xxix] Remarkably, “[t]he availability of quality water in [many] indigenous peoples’ territories was preserved due to their sustainable practices as well as [the] difficult accessibility of their territories”.[xxx]

Indigenous Peoples “offer us valuable ways to address the global water crisis through their traditional practices, both in terms of the sustainable management of aquatic ecosystems and the democratic governance of safe drinking water and sanitation”.[xxxi] Despite this, Indigenous Peoples are commonly left out “from planning and strategic decision-making in climate change prevention and adaptation”. This “often increases the risks they face in water and sanitation”.[xxxii]

Overall, “the richness of indigenous peoples' knowledge and their evolution to adapt to climate change in their territories are often ignored”.[xxxiii] In line with this, “mainstream approaches to water management often dismiss indigenous peoples’ water knowledge and management systems as unscientific or folkloric”. This disregards “the fact that their knowledge is based on empirical experience, resulting from living in their territories from generation to generation”.[xxxiv]

What measures should companies take to protect water rights?

An overarching issue in modern water management and Indigenous Peoples’ access to water is “water and sanitation projects not having a sustainable strategy to prevent funding exhaustion”.[xxxv] One way to solve this is to factor in the knowledge and know-how of Indigenous Peoples. The beliefs and practices of Indigenous Peoples provide “a genuine expression of the sustainability and eco-systemic approach, which today we are trying to promote in the planning and management of water throughout the world”.[xxxvi]

To effectively uphold Indigenous rights, companies “must put in place the necessary means to ensure that indigenous peoples enjoy their human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, inclusive of an intercultural dialogue that is respectful of their ancestral worldviews, knowledge and practices”.[xxxvii] All in all, it is also worth noting that “information processes and respectful intercultural dialogue between [stakeholders] and indigenous peoples” are key “to ensure the most appropriate strategies to guarantee the potability of the water used”.[xxxviii]

Moreover, “in order to guarantee compliance with the rights of indigenous peoples and effective control over their [own] territories”, companies must ensure that the Indigenous “right to free, prior and informed consent [is] implemented before and during any action that affects them, including actions that affect their water and aquatic ecosystems”.[xxxix] In addition to meaningful stakeholder engagement, companies should carry out thorough social and environmental impact assessments. This information then needs to be shared with relevant stakeholders and form the basis for later dialogues.

If you are interested to learn more about water and Indigenous rights, have a look at our new e-learning modules in The E-Waste Database. Our next newsletter will explore water scarcity and conflict. If you want to be notified when it comes out, please subscribe to our mailing list.

About the authors

Krisna Baghouzian is a freelance sustainability consultant at Palsa & Pulk. She has a background in governance and past experience in working on sustainability at a local government with a people-centered approach. In her work, Krisna likes to take a holistic view of sustainability — by touching on different aspects of sustainability and their impact on our Earth and its inhabitants.

Christine Nikander is the founder of the environmental and social sustainability consultancy, Palsa & Pulk. She frequently speaks and writes about the environmental and human rights issues that arise through global supply chains, the energy transition, and the mining of critical raw minerals. Christine studied law at the universities of Columbia (New York), Edinburgh (Scotland), and Leiden (the Netherlands). She has been writing The E-Waste Column weekly since 2022.

About The E-Waste Column

The E-Waste Column is a weekly column about e-waste, transition minerals, and critical raw materials. It touches on a range of topics including ESG, sustainable development, circular economy, EU law and policymaking, corporate social responsibility, the transition to renewable energy, the EU Green Deal, supply chain due diligence and auditing, human environmental rights, business and human rights, climate law, and corporate sustainability.

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[i] M. G. Macklin et al., Impacts of metal mining on river systems: a global assessment. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adg6704 (26.03.2025); Victoria Gill, Metal-mining pollution impacts 23 million people worldwide. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-66880697 (26.03.2025).

[ii] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, p. 10. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025).

[iii] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025).

[iv] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025); The Indigenous Foundation, Lack of Clean Drinking Water in Indigenous communities. https://www.theindigenousfoundation.org/articles/lack-of-clean-drinking-water-in-indigenous-communities (19.03.2025).

[v] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025); The Indigenous Foundation, Lack of Clean Drinking Water in Indigenous communities. https://www.theindigenousfoundation.org/articles/lack-of-clean-drinking-water-in-indigenous-communities (19.03.2025).

[vi] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, A/HRC/51/24: Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: state of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/ahrc5124-human-rights-safe-drinking-water-and-sanitation-indigenous (19.03.2025).

[vii] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025).

[viii] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, p. 5. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025).

[ix] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, p. 11. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025); The Indigenous Foundation, Lack of Clean Drinking Water in Indigenous communities. https://www.theindigenousfoundation.org/articles/lack-of-clean-drinking-water-in-indigenous-communities (19.03.2025).

[x] Morton, Adam: Evidence grows of forced labour and slavery in production of solar panels, wind turbines. https://amp-theguardian-com.cdn.ampproject.org/c/s/amp.theguardian.com/environment/2022/nov/29/evidence-grows-of-forced-labour-and-slavery-in-production-of-solar-panels-wind-turbines (05.11.2024); Taft, Molly: Over Half the World’s Energy Transition Minerals Are on Indigenous Lands. https://gizmodo.com/over-half-the-worlds-energy-transition-minerals-are-on-1849865104 (05.11.2024); European Federation for Transport and Environment: How Europe can improve the way global extractive companies do business. https://www.transportenvironment.org/discover/how-europe-can-improve-the-way-global-extractive-companies-do-business/ (05.11.2024)

[xi] Block, Samuel: Mining Energy-Transition Metals: National Aims, Local Conflicts. https://www.msci.com/www/blog-posts/mining-energy-transition-metals/02531033947 (05.11.2024)

[iv] Business & Human Rights Resource Centre: “You can’t eat lithium”: Community consent and access to information in transition mineral mining exploration. https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/from-us/briefings/tmt-2021/you-cant-eat-lithium-community-consent-and-access-to-information-in-transition-mineral-mining-exploration-in-europe-and-north-america (05.11.2024); Iris Crawford, Scott Odell: Will mining the resources needed for clean energy cause problems for the environment? https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/will-mining-resources-needed-clean-energy-cause-problems-environment (05.11.2024); Éléonore Lèbre, Martin Stringer, Kamila Svobodova, John R. Owen, Deanna Kemp, Claire Côte, Andrea Arratia-Solar, Rick K. Valenta: The social and environmental complexities of extracting energy transition metals. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-18661-9 (05.11.2024); Riofrancos, Thea: Shifting Mining From the Global South Misses the Point of Climate Justice. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/02/07/renewable-energy-transition-critical-minerals-mining-onshoring-lithium-evs-climate-justice/ (05.11.2024); International Energy Agency: Sustainable and responsible development of minerals. https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions/sustainable-and-responsible-development-of-minerals (05.11.2024); International Energy Agency: The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (05.11.2024); Laffont, Pascal: Critical minerals for clean energy transitions. https://unctad.org/system/files/non-official-document/GCF21_s4_Laffont_1.pdf (05.11.2024).

[xii] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025).

[xiii] Business & Human Rights Resource Centre: “You can’t eat lithium”: Community consent and access to information in transition mineral mining exploration. https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/from-us/briefings/tmt-2021/you-cant-eat-lithium-community-consent-and-access-to-information-in-transition-mineral-mining-exploration-in-europe-and-north-america (05.11.2024); Iris Crawford, Scott Odell: Will mining the resources needed for clean energy cause problems for the environment? https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/will-mining-resources-needed-clean-energy-cause-problems-environment (05.11.2024); Éléonore Lèbre, Martin Stringer, Kamila Svobodova, John R. Owen, Deanna Kemp, Claire Côte, Andrea Arratia-Solar, Rick K. Valenta: The social and environmental complexities of extracting energy transition metals. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-18661-9 (05.11.2024); Riofrancos, Thea: Shifting Mining From the Global South Misses the Point of Climate Justice. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/02/07/renewable-energy-transition-critical-minerals-mining-onshoring-lithium-evs-climate-justice/ (05.11.2024); International Energy Agency: Sustainable and responsible development of minerals. https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions/sustainable-and-responsible-development-of-minerals (05.11.2024); International Energy Agency: The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (05.11.2024); Laffont, Pascal: Critical minerals for clean energy transitions. https://unctad.org/system/files/non-official-document/GCF21_s4_Laffont_1.pdf (05.11.2024); Samuel Block, Mining Energy-Transition Metals: National Aims, Local Conflicts. https://www.msci.com/www/blog-posts/mining-energy-transition-metals/02531033947 (05.11.2024); Amnesty International, Philippines: Nickel mining projects approved despite inadequate consultation and serious risks to communities’ health and environment. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/01/philippines-nickel-mining-projects-approved-despite-inadequate-consultation-and-serious-risks-to-communities-health-and-environment/ (05.11.2024).

[xiv] Global Witness, How the militarisation of mining threatens Indigenous defenders in the Philippines. https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/land-and-environmental-defenders/how-the-militarisation-of-mining-threatens-indigenous-defenders-in-the-philippines/ (27.03.2025).

[xv] Global Witness, How the militarisation of mining threatens Indigenous defenders in the Philippines. https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/land-and-environmental-defenders/how-the-militarisation-of-mining-threatens-indigenous-defenders-in-the-philippines/ (27.03.2025).

[xvi] Global Witness, How the militarisation of mining threatens Indigenous defenders in the Philippines. https://globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/land-and-environmental-defenders/how-the-militarisation-of-mining-threatens-indigenous-defenders-in-the-philippines/ (27.03.2025).

[xvii] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, p. 10. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025).

[xviii] Christine Nikander & Heidrun Kordholste-Nikander: How can companies protect Indigenous Peoples’ rights by caring for forests? https://www.palsapulk.com/post/how-can-businesses-protect-indigenous-peoples-rights-by-caring-for-forests (13.11.2024); Morton, Adam: Evidence grows of forced labour and slavery in production of solar panels, wind turbines. https://amp-theguardian-com.cdn.ampproject.org/c/s/amp.theguardian.com/environment/2022/nov/29/evidence-grows-of-forced-labour-and-slavery-in-production-of-solar-panels-wind-turbines (05.11.2024); Taft, Molly: Over Half the World’s Energy Transition Minerals Are on Indigenous Lands. https://gizmodo.com/over-half-the-worlds-energy-transition-minerals-are-on-1849865104 (05.11.2024); European Federation for Transport and Environment: How Europe can improve the way global extractive companies do business. https://www.transportenvironment.org/discover/how-europe-can-improve-the-way-global-extractive-companies-do-business/ (05.11.2024)

[xxxiv] Kanungo, Alokya: The Silent Cry of the Forest: How Deforestation Impacts Indigenous Communities. https://earth.org/the-silent-cry-of-the-forest-how-deforestation-impacts-indigenous-communities/ (05.11.2024)

[xix] Christine Nikander & Heidrun Kordholste-Nikander: How does the mining of critical raw materials impact Indigenous Peoples’ rights? https://www.theewastecolumn.com/post/how-does-the-mining-of-critical-raw-materials-impact-indigenous-peoples-rights (13.11.2024); Donaldson, Alex: Mining causes 24.7% of environmental conflict involving indigenous people. https://www.mining-technology.com/news/mining-environmental-conflict-indigenous-people/ (05.11.2024)

[xx] Christine Nikander & Heidrun Kordholste-Nikander: How can companies protect Indigenous Peoples’ rights by caring for forests? https://www.palsapulk.com/post/how-can-businesses-protect-indigenous-peoples-rights-by-caring-for-forests (13.11.2024); Morton, Adam: Evidence grows of forced labour and slavery in production of solar panels, wind turbines. https://amp-theguardian-com.cdn.ampproject.org/c/s/amp.theguardian.com/environment/2022/nov/29/evidence-grows-of-forced-labour-and-slavery-in-production-of-solar-panels-wind-turbines (05.11.2024); Taft, Molly: Over Half the World’s Energy Transition Minerals Are on Indigenous Lands. https://gizmodo.com/over-half-the-worlds-energy-transition-minerals-are-on-1849865104 (05.11.2024); European Federation for Transport and Environment: How Europe can improve the way global extractive companies do business. https://www.transportenvironment.org/discover/how-europe-can-improve-the-way-global-extractive-companies-do-business/ (05.11.2024)

[xxi] Christine Nikander & Heidrun Kordholste-Nikander: How does the mining of critical raw materials impact Indigenous Peoples’ rights? https://www.theewastecolumn.com/post/how-does-the-mining-of-critical-raw-materials-impact-indigenous-peoples-rights (13.11.2024); Radwin, Maxwell: Indigenous Bolivians flee homes as backlash to mining protest turns explosive. https://news.mongabay.com/2024/04/indigenous-bolivians-flee-homes-as-backlash-to-mining-protest-turns-explosive/ (05.11.2024)

[xxii] Christine Nikander & Heidrun Kordholste-Nikander: How does the mining of critical raw materials impact Indigenous Peoples’ rights? https://www.theewastecolumn.com/post/how-does-the-mining-of-critical-raw-materials-impact-indigenous-peoples-rights (13.11.2024); Radwin, Maxwell: Indigenous Bolivians flee homes as backlash to mining protest turns explosive. https://news.mongabay.com/2024/04/indigenous-bolivians-flee-homes-as-backlash-to-mining-protest-turns-explosive/ (05.11.2024)

[xxiii] Christine Nikander & Heidrun Kordholste-Nikander: How does the mining of critical raw materials impact Indigenous Peoples’ rights? https://www.theewastecolumn.com/post/how-does-the-mining-of-critical-raw-materials-impact-indigenous-peoples-rights (13.11.2024); Donaldson, Alex: Mining causes 24.7% of environmental conflict involving indigenous people. https://www.mining-technology.com/news/mining-environmental-conflict-indigenous-people/ (05.11.2024); Ernest Scheyder, In blow to Native Americans, US court approves land swap for Rio's Arizona copper mine. https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/us-appeals-court-rejects-bid-block-land-swap-rios-arizona-copper-mine-2024-03-01/ (27.03.2025).

[xxiv] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025).

[xxv] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025).

[xxvi] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025).

[xxvii] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025).

[xxviii] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025).

[xxix] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025).

[xxx] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025).

[xxxi] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, A/HRC/51/24: Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: state of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/ahrc5124-human-rights-safe-drinking-water-and-sanitation-indigenous (19.03.2025); Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025).

[xxxii] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, p. 9. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025); The Indigenous Foundation, Lack of Clean Drinking Water in Indigenous communities. https://www.theindigenousfoundation.org/articles/lack-of-clean-drinking-water-in-indigenous-communities (19.03.2025).

[xxxiii] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, p. 9. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025).

[xxxiv] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025).

[xxxv] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025); The Indigenous Foundation, Lack of Clean Drinking Water in Indigenous communities. https://www.theindigenousfoundation.org/articles/lack-of-clean-drinking-water-in-indigenous-communities (19.03.2025).

[xxxvi] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025).

[xxxvii] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025); The Indigenous Foundation, Lack of Clean Drinking Water in Indigenous communities. https://www.theindigenousfoundation.org/articles/lack-of-clean-drinking-water-in-indigenous-communities (19.03.2025); B.M.J. Kalpana Balasooriya et al., A review of drinking water quality issues in remote and indigenous communities in rich nations with special emphasis on Australia. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723051847 (19.03.2025).

[xxxviii] Pedro Arrojo Agudo, Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation of indigenous peoples: State of affairs and lessons from ancestral cultures. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, p. 11. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/water/2022-11-04/A-HRC-51-24-Friendly-version-EN.pdf (19.03.2025).

[xxxix] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Indigenous peoples face growing challenges to access safe water. https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/10/indigenous-peoples-face-growing-challenges-access-safe-water (19.03.2025).